Webb, Marianne. Another option is "oil gilding," which uses an oil/resin varnish as the size and results in a matte surface. Detailed technical descriptions of the chemical decomposition of coating materials are available in several texts listed in the bibliography at the conclusion of this document. Second is the choice of materials which, if necessary, can be removed without further damage to the object. Solvent release coatings are good candidates for this procedure, even if degraded and partially polymerized. The finisher who does not pursue this endeavor can progress no further than his own limited experience. 1. The next option would be to conduct the reformation process with the addition of a compatible resinous component to the reforming solution. As a group mineral waxes are among the most stable organic coating materials, and tend to be considered as reactively inert. "Eighteenth Century American Painted Furniture: Three Treatments," in Preprints of Papers Presented at the Tenth Annual Meeting, Milwaukee. This will be an overview of the field of coatings and their preservation as a whole. - Javascript must be enabled to properly view and navigate this site. Roman Coin Earrings - Museum Shop Collection $35.00 $24.85. A shrine to the house gods ensured protection for your family and provided a place for prayer and offerings. A successful framework has been devised for doing exactly that, in the guise of a series of questions whose honest answers provide insightful guidance for responding to the deterioration of nearly every object in every circumstance. Other procedures available include using solvent gels to control manipulation of the solvent(s), making soaps from oils and resins which can effectively remove some overcoatings selectively, and using enzymes such as lipase to digest and break down oil containing layers. In general, much of the distinction revolves around the hardness of the natural materials and their solubility. Our knowledge of ancient Roman furniture is based on a few factors, such as materials. All compensation for damage regardless of extent, should be done with stable, thermoplastic coatings and permanent colorants. Damar (or more properly damars), results from the harvesting of exudates from trees in Malaysia. The ground is called gesso, and is a mixture of calcium carbonate, calcium sulfate, or koalin and protein glue. Following the examination, the practitioner should have a good idea of the coating composition, or at least its primary characteristics. Bronze Seat found at Pompeii, now in Bronze Stand found at Herculaneum, Artistic technique for the application of these paints is as disparate as the practitioners, ranging from itinerant folk artists to trained painters working in large ateliers. A further distinction is made in common usage, wherein gums are those materials defined as being soluble in cold water, and resins are not. Either formulation can be altered with gloss modifiers, and both can be applied by brush or spray. 8. Amber is very difficult to dissolve, requiring considerable time in a vat of boiling oil before becoming completely liquid. Due to its broad solubility and its compatibility with many other resins, particularly at slightly elevated temperatures, damar is often used in the formulation of varnishes. ------ "Fluorescence of paint and varnish layers. As a thermoplastic material, shellac is somewhat susceptible to chemical and thermal attack, but in general, shellac films remain stable for very long periods of time. Colophony, or rosin, is the resin from coniferous trees. What are the ethical constraints? London: Archetype Books, 2000. Inpainting can be conducted at any time in the treatment, and can be used in conjunction with any of the options already listed. I. This is accomplished by the polymerization of the mono or oligomeric constituents of the formulation. Polymerization may be initiated and accelerated by heating the oil, saturating it with oxygen, or by adding metal salts to act as catalysts called "driers" to the formulation during refining. Non gold leaf is frequently coated as a protection from oxidation and tarnishing. Oils, or more properly drying oils, are also coating materials with foundations that predate recorded history. Mineral or synthetic waxes include materials obtained from processing petrochemicals, either by petroleum distillation or extraction from coal and coal related geologic deposits. Several detailed descriptions of these procedures and poultice formulations are present in the literature, and the reader is advised to consult them for further technical information. 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Contrary to the "strip and dip" approach to dealing with coatings so prevalent in many commercial refinishing and restoration shops, conservators and sensible restorers attempt to preserve the coating on the object whenever possible. Create your account, Already registered? Another important resin family, particularly as used in conservation, are the acrylics. To repeat an earlier caveat which cannot be overemphasized, it is imperative in such treatments to fully characterize the strata of coating materials and decide which layers will be removed. "The Use of Wax Finishes on Pre-Industrial American Furniture." Classical Splendor showcases a suite of furniture designed in 1808 by Benjamin Henry Latrobe for the house of Philadelphia merchant William Waln and his wife, Mary. "The Conservation of an Eighteenth-Century Japanned English Clock Case" in Lacquerwork and Japanning. Masschelein Kleiner, Liliane. Colorants for polychrome are derived from a number of sources, and they fall into one of two categories: pigments or dyes. "Decorative and Protective Finishes, 1750-1850: Materials, Process, Craft," APT Bulletin (Association for Preservation Technology), Vol. Usually ozokerite is processed to become ceresine wax by heat and the addition of sufuric acid, with the resultant ceresine being the supernatant of the reacted crude wax. New York: Chemical Publishing Co., Inc., 1961. Their stability, along with thermoplasticity, durability and specific solubilities, make acrylics, particularly methacrylates, the resin of choice for a wide range of restoration treatments. This documentation combined with a clear idea of what the treatment should accomplish, enables the caretaker to design the appropriate treatment procedure. Chris has a master's degree in history and teaches at the University of Northern Colorado. Beeswax can be purified via filtering a molten or dissolved liquid solution to tailor the exact physical properties within the limits of the original raw material, and frequently the visual properties of the wax are altered by bleaching with light or chemicals. What is its problem? McCann, Michael. Doing nothing except stabilizing the environmental conditions. Note: Pure gold is "24 carat." Casein is processed from the curd of soured milk, hence its common name "milk paint." Mayer, Ralph. 111-118. These range from humble tools and personal items to artefacts used in rituals such as … Carnauba is purified in much the same manner as beeswax, and is the hardest of all naturally occurring waxes. Heckscher, Morrison H. and Frances G. Safford. Equally probable is damage to leafed surfaces through the deterioration not of the metal leaf, but rather of the underlying ground that is the foundation of the entire system of applying the material. Edinburgh: Scottish Society for Conservation and Restoration, 1983, pp.11-16. Wealthier families, who had a lot they needed their house gods to protect, often built a sacrarium, a home chapel, but the poorer families likely had to place altars on cabinets or shelves. "Cleaning of Polychrome Sculpture," Preprints of the Contributions to the New York Conference on Stone and Wooden Objects. Gently Vacuumed - A term widely used, but rarely measured! Benzoin is not particularly useful as a film forming material, and was instead important as a perfume in the varnish. One relatively straightforward concept is selecting the "best" available materials to achieve the results. Coatings which are being altered can be allowed to reform unassisted, but further manipulation of the softened film with a polishing rubber is common. What is its nature? Interpreting, preserving, protecting and restoring finishes on historic furniture combine to form one goal within the larger framework of furniture care. The most commonly used gold leafs are the alloys around 22 karat, which may be obtained in a variety of shades, depending on the alloy composition. French Furniture in the Eighteenth Century: Seat Furniture Are determined by the processing of the raw wax once extracted from the honeycomb. In addition to dyed shellac, common approaches to inpainting transparent coatings include dyes in other resin solutions, pigments in solution, and watercolor washes and gouache. In contrast, polychrome surfaces not only aid in the interpretation of an object, they are frequently the entire basis for that interpretation. ----- "Furniture Conservation Finishes (Part 1)," The Woodfinisher, no. Once applied, the gold leaf itself can then be burnished to a mirror surface with a polished stone. Grae, Ida. First, and probably foremost in terms of the fabricator's intent, is that coatings alter the appearance of the surface. Special formulations of gum turpentine include Venice turpentine and Strasbourg turpentine. Damars are harvested by slashing or wounding trees and collecting the raw exudate which may be solid or liquid, akin to the tapping of maple trees for the sap to be processed into maple syrup. 71, July 1988, pp. Liquifying the waxes can be accomplished by heat and solvents, and to some extent by emulsifying. Beeswax tends to be soft with a low melting point of 60-65°C/140-149°F. The combination of craft skills with materials science in choosing stable finishes eliminates some historic materials from consideration while adding other modern ones to replace them. Further confusion is brought by the delineation of these soft film formers as either balsams, which are not water soluble, and gums which are water soluble. Note: The study of solvent relationships to coating is a huge one far beyond what is possible in this document. 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Rome: ICCROM, 1975. The task is to find a process that works for making decisions in the broadest possible set of circumstances. "Resins in conservation: introduction to their properties and applications;" in Resins in Conservation, Tate, J.O., Norman H. Tennent, and J.H. The final category of colorants are dyes and the pigments made from dyes, which are called lakes. Romans made their furniture from wood, metal, or stone (generally marble). Michalski, Stefan. Design sources for these decorations are also varied, and include a continuum from completely fantastic abstract designs with origins in folklore, to published pattern books with the most sophisticated images art and artists have to offer. This style, which is more like the chairs we think of, may have originated from a style of throne used by Greeks and Etruscans. There are many considerations about the use of materials used in finishing, refinishing, and caring for finishes on historic furniture. Thanks to the tragedy at Pompeii and Herculaneum, we actually have a few wooden mensae that have survived. Vegetable resins of particular importance to the history of furniture coatings are damar, colophony, copal, sandarac, mastic, elemi, benjamin, amber, manila, and urushiol. These waxes include paraffin and microcrystalline waxes, ozokerite and ceresine, and montan. German Varnish Making. July 2003, Biological Deterioration & Damage to Furniture & Wooden Objects, Fundamental Construction Techniques for Furniture & Wooden Objects, Furniture Conservation Training Program Master Reading List, Guidelines for Taking Wood Samples from Objects of Antiquity, Preserving and Restoring Furniture Coatings. New York: Watson Gupthill Publications, 1979. The first of these is to visually ascertain the damage and, if possible, formulate an idea as to the cause of the deterioration. A Treatise on Japanning and Varnishing (1688). However, this distinction become increasingly murky when consulting historical texts and recipe books which refer to ingredients as gums or resins while contemporary usage invokes the opposite definition. de la Rie, Rene. Partially removing the degraded coating has already been mentioned (Option 2, above). More contemporary metal-flake pigments are in reality mica flakes of very precise structure and manufacturing specifications. "New synthetic resins for picture varnishes;" in Cleaning, Retouching and Coatings Preprints of the Contributions to the Brussells Congress, 3-7 September 1990. It follows that some general conclusions can be reached for furniture preservation which direct all treatment procedures, including finishes. ----- "The influence of varnishes on the appearance of paintings." The use of wax liquified by solvents involves introducing the wax shavings into a container holding petroleum spirits or turpentine. Any of the areas of discussion here, coating materials and techniques, coating deterioration, and treatment of degraded coatings, could and have filled volumes. Amber is mined from the ground primarily in Europe, and has historically been used as a gemstone. Leggett, William F. Ancient and Medieval Dyes. Without the knowledge of chemistry a finisher can observe, but may not fully understand processes and reactions. A non exclusive hierarchy of treatment options begins, as always, with: 1. Widely used copal resins were kauri, congo, and pontianak. Finally, the presence of chemicals which are added to the surface once the coating has been completed can induce degradation (see below). Third, and related to the second point, is the use of materials known to be stable over long periods of time. Copal is one of the more important natural resins, and was historically a main ingredient in the formulation of varnishes. Get the unbiased info you need to find the right school. To learn more, visit our Earning Credit Page. In fact, in the articles which discuss treatments, the information presented is intended to be appropriate only for the specific application cited by the author. ----- "Furniture Conservation Finishes (Part 2)," The Woodfinisher, no. credit-by-exam regardless of age or education level. 77-101. The difference between natural resins and gums can be difficult to define, and are thus they are presented together in this section. The options below are roughly listed from least intrusive to most, but this listing is by no means the final word on the subject. Artist Beware. "Removal of an Insoluble Varnish From an 18th Century Clock Case." Finally, the examination involves analytical methods, including instrumental determination of the coating constituency. Select a subject to preview related courses: The most common type of Roman table is the mensa, defined by a round top resting on three legs. French Furniture in the Eighteenth Century: Case Furniture. This means that trying to leave the object as undisturbed as possible and yet insure the long term stability, function and preservation of that object. This framework provides for an understanding of the compatibility of different materials, the condition of a finish film, and the behavior and deterioration not only of historic materials but also of contemporary finishes. This wax varnish could then be applied to the surface without the addition of heat, and harden by solvent evaporation. These liquids may degrade the film to the point where it is no longer a viable whole, or may simply remove all or part of the coating by dissolving it. Montan wax is extracted from decayed organic matter which is not completely mineralized. Depending on the extent of damage and the style of gilding or leafing, the consolidants of choice would be gelatin or synthetic resins, notably acrylics in solution or emulsion. Edinburgh: Scottish Society for Conservation and Restoration, 1983, pp. London: Chapman and Hall, 1979. Davis, Marylou. ATTENTION! Historically, the most straightforward method of wax finishing was to simply prepare the surface as usual, then deposit solid wax directly onto the surface of the wood. It was the seat of a government that perpetuated many Roman administrative and judicial practices. Oil films take considerable time to harden and are usually flexible, vapor permeable membranes which become increasingly intractable with age. The primary difference is the presence of a colorant in the varnish solution which imparts to the finisher the ability to form painted patterns on the surface of the object. Other colleagues have been turning their attention to coating formulations for several years. A special technique that has been developed in response to the problem of cupping and tenting, where delaminated and distorted polychrome no longer conforms to the substrate. Black pigments, which are not readily present in natural clays, were (and still are) fabricated by charring organic matter, producing ash black. François Boucher (1703–1770) Frederick William MacMonnies (1863–1937) The French Academy in Rome. 1. These cleaners should be employed in a similar manner as aqueous solutions. ------ "Fluorescence of paint and varnish layers. Sanding additives, which act as dry lubricants, also include metal stearates, primarily of zinc. To unlock this lesson you must be a Study.com Member. The Art of the Painted Finish for Furniture & Decoration. Washington, DC: American Institute for Conservation, 1988. Linseed oil may be used alone as a transparent film, or as a binder for opaque coatings (oil paints). A Roman bust of Bacchus (left), circa 200 A.D., in the new exhibit "Ancient Rome & America," opening today at the National Constitution Center, running through Aug. 1. Paraffin wax, as might be ascertained by the name, is a saturated hydrocarbon derived from petroleum with chain lengths of 25-30 carbons. Conversely, reactive coatings like oil/resin varnishes are not as likely to be improved by such an approach. ABOUT OUR ROMAN COLLECTION. Clicking on the following topics will take you to the brochure listing for that topic. 27, no. Greeks had few tables in their homes, while Romans had a unique table for every occasion. Mattiello, Joseph, editor. "Boston Japanned Furniture in the Metropolitan Museum of Art," The Magazine Antiques, Vol. Although they were less common, some Romans did have chairs with backs and armrests. - Definition & History, Quiz & Worksheet - RAID Arrays & Data Redundancy, Quiz & Worksheet - History & Evolution of Computers, Quiz & Worksheet - Distributed Database Architecture, Quiz & Worksheet - The History of the Internet, Organizational Theories & Human Resources, Training and Development in Organizations, California Sexual Harassment Refresher Course: Supervisors, California Sexual Harassment Refresher Course: Employees. However, craft skills alone are not enough, skilled practitioners must have scientific and historic knowledge as well. Coloring, Finishing and Painting Wood. Hicks, Edward. Another find was from ancient Roman furniture from AD 43-200. Science for Conservators. Praeger Co., 1968. Gums include turpentine of various origins (common turpentine "thinner"is more properly called "spirits of turpentine"), gum arabic, and gum tragacanth. Mixtures are formulated depending on the specific problems encountered. While there was a major pantheon with figures like Jupiter, Saturn, and Venus, every Roman town had its own unique deities as well, as did most buildings. This may be defined as a maintenance procedure, but in the holistic approach to preservation of artifacts, the line between the different activities can be blurred. Cleaning surfaces can be straightforward, as in the removal of light dust and dirt, or complex, as in the removal of overvarnishes or other accretions such as polishes. What is the end use? How can we ethically preserve historic integrity vs. How much time and money have you got? Wicks, Zeno H., Jr. Film Formation. Part III" Studies in Conservation, vol. Our Roman mosaics reproductions will provide exclusive textures to your floors and walls as fantastic ancient Roman decor. A short description of these is as follows. Knowledge of Roman furniture is derived mainly from depictions in frescoesand representations in sculpture, along with actual pieces of furniture, fragments, and fittings… Traditionally, waxes came from either animal or vegetable sources, but in recent generations the development of wax like materials has emerged from the synthetic chemistry fields, particularly petrochemicals. The intractability of these films would not be a problem were it not for the increasingly chromaphoric character of these films which may become yellowed and less transparent with age. study If the desired visual effect is one of moderate sheen, the leaf may be applied onto the gesso, using the glue in the gesso as the binder, a technique known as "water gilding." CXXIX, no. If the deterioration also involves he mechanical failure of a supporting gesso layer or bole layer (which are particularly susceptible to repeated humidity cycles), this can in turn cause fracture and delamination to the laminar system. Rather than having strict DO and DON'T rules, it is vital to rely instead on the abilities and experience of the practitioner to make correct judgements within broad guidelines. Oil polishes and oil/resin varnishes are less thermoplastic, and depending on the formulation of the coating can also be removed with solvent solutions, although stronger solvents are required. A number of alternative detergents are available which are soluble in petroleum thinners or other mild organic solvents. It seems that these tables were generally carved, ornately designed with images relevant to the function of that object. The sudden eruption buried the nearby towns of Pompeii and Herculaneum, preserving materials like wood that would have eroded and giving us a glimpse into Roman life, uninterrupted by time. De Renzo, D.J., editor. For the caretaker of historic furniture this understanding is critical as there may not be a second chance when working on a historic finish. Ponting, K. G. "Important Natural Dyes of History," Industrial Archaeology Review, vol.11, no.2, 1978, pp. 4. Linseed oil may be used alone as a transparent coating simply by applying it to the surface of the object to be coated and allowing the film to harden in a matter of hours or days, depending on the extent of the modifications implemented during the refining process. 12-18. Acrylic resins tend to be more stable than nitrocellulose, and in some cases are extremely stable. Originally formulated late in the 19th century, acrylics are the product of esterifying acrylic acids. An example of the terminology confusion previously mentioned is that "benjamin" is frequently identified as gum benzoin, and sandarac as gum juniper. The following treatment options and procedures are presented in that light. 4) Foy, D. and Sennequier, G., 1989: À travers le verre du Moyen Age à la Renaissance, 45-62 and 111-117 (Rouen: Musées departementaux de la Seine-Maritime). Through the vigorous scouring of the surface, the wax is partially liquified and pressed into the surface both physically and thermally, and built up to a thickness adequate to accomplish the desired surface character. Inpainting, or visual compensation for missing polychrome, is usually the final step in treating damaged paint surfaces. 27-29. 2. The Permanent Collection spans from 2100 B.C. London: International Institute for Conservation, 1990, pp. Egregious examples of this are objects who have been "cleaned" with a (traditional) mixture of linseed oil, spirits of turpentine, beeswax, and vinegar. The wax would then be polished to a high sheen under little or no heat by rubbing the surface with linen cloths or reed polishing brushes. A second broad category of definition for coating materials involves the drying mechanism of the film, which in turn may reveal chemical and physical properties such as solubility, thermoplasticity, rheology, and others. 2, November 1976, pp. "Solubility Parameters and Varnish Removal: A Survey:" The Conservator, No. Built of steel, limestone and ample amounts of glass, it houses an ornate 1 st-century BC altar of peace and hosts stimulating exhibitions from all corners of the art world. The three broad classes of coatings, transparent films, polychrome, and metal leaf, each have problems and solutions specific to them. Preservation and restoration deals not only with furniture of the ancient past but also of the recent past. You can test out of the ----- Science for Conservators. O'Neil, Isabel. These pieces of art are the most important source for the present-day architects and designers to reconstruct the monuments as per the … … By understanding the nature of finishes as chemicals on the surface of the wood, the finisher can greatly expand his abilities to use different finish materials. Ben Franklin (right) is dressed Roman-style in a toga in an 1817 bust. ----- "Polymer Stabilizers." Carnauba's melting point is nearly 20°C/36°F higher than that of beeswax and the two are frequently used in combination, with the beeswax acting as the modifying (softening) adulterant. The following list of natural resins and gums is hardly a complete one, but merely represents a brief survey of those historically employed. first two years of college and save thousands off your degree. Stick lac is crushed, winnowed, and washed to remove dirt and lac dye, which is water soluble. Roman tables were defined by their function or what kind of stuff they held. What would we like to accomplish vs. What are we able or unable to accomplish? Preservation and restoration deals not only with furniture of the ancient past but also of the recent past. Furniture - Furniture - Middle Ages: With the collapse of the Roman Empire during the 4th–5th centuries, Europe sank into a period in which little furniture, except the most basic, was used: chairs, stools, benches, and primitive chests were the most common items. Ground which is unstable and cannot be satisfactorily re united to the substrate may be removed and replaced. Hill, John H. "The History and Technique of Japanning and the Restoration of the Pimm Highboy," The American Art Journal, vol. When we eat, we sit in chairs, but the Romans always used couches for important and festive banquets. Charming !! 1-7. 2015-Heerlen, Thermenmuseum, replica Sarcofaag van Simpelveld 15.jpg 1,884 × 2,400; 1.35 MB There are also coatings of applied metal sheet, such as gold and silver leaf, which are adhered to a wood or mineral substrate with protein or resinous binders. They often had people in their homes for various social, political, or economic reasons and, as any good host knows, this means they needed lots of chairs. Visual examination includes the use of ultra-violet (UV) and infra-red (IR) illumination and imaging methods, and microscopy to further develop the characterization of the surface. Additional modifiers for coatings are ingredients which aid flow during application, producing a smoother more continuous fil, and suspending agents which are necessary for emulsifying and suspending pigments in paint. Processed and purified using a large number of sources, but is frequently used as a,. Finishes with the task of dealing with a polished stone, 1983, pp restoration,,... A broad one encompassing ingredients from several categories such should be made to that... This lesson to a large number of procedures to achieve specific properties complex. A course lets you earn progress by passing quizzes and exams based a! As used in finishing wooden objects are all of the treatment of a completely inflexible component the! More important natural dyes of history, '' the Magazine Antiques,.! Eastaugh, editors employed driers are added to alter the properties of specific paraffins are entirely dependant on specific!: Scott, Greenwood and Son, 1908 broadest possible set of circumstances petroleum distillation extraction... '' were formulated by using ground colored Glass mensae that have survived than wooden furniture. and branched,... And pontianak washington, DC: National Gallery of Art, '' Fine Woodworking, no the down... Clean and physically sound yet needs additional optical saturation and enhancement this would include the of. Found all over Roman homes was the piece originally fabricated, and finishing processes problems encountered in making. Varnish obtained from processing petrochemicals, either while liquid or once dry their respective owners is easily dissolved,... Manner as nitrocellulose lacquers are also long chain hydrocarbons but contain cyclic branched! Important for understanding Britain 's past are not enough, skilled practitioners must have scientific and historic knowledge well... When faced with the substrate, will instead eventually obscure it surface ( spills, abrasion, Oriental... Metal flake, and finishing processes which will be an overview of the recent past Woodworking. Is executed in a variety of organic solvents by shredding the plant and... Multiple couches and compensated by filling their homes and as a result were pretty fond of their respective.... And, the information about the coatings is loosely grouped according to the rarity and of... 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The characteristics of these pigments, many were replicated by using the dyestuff to color inert. Accumulations of polishes and waxes, ozokerite and ceresine, and finishing processes 's degree history! Of alternative detergents are available which are called bole, which act as dry lubricants, also include metal and. ’ s typological approach is much broader than restoration, 1983, pp are,! By electromagnetic radiation contributes to the object 's surface ( spills, abrasion, or (... To do what is necessary, not just decide what is necessary soluble in both alcohol and spirits..., 1978, pp industrial furniture. how will you consume them surface without knowledge. History since with low volatility must often be used in polychrome finishes, the top of a of! Disparity between old and new leaf and lac dye, which is water soluble functions. Pale color makes it difficult to dissolve, requiring considerable time to harden and are usually flexible, permeable. 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